International Economics Is Different
(国际经济学是一门独特的学科)
1. Four Controversies (四个有争议的事件)
（1）Imports of Automobile Tires （汽车轮胎的进口） （2）Immigration （移民）
（3）China′s Exchange Rate (中国的汇率)
（4）Global Financial and Economic Crisis （全球金融和经济危机） 2.Economics and the nation-state（经济学和国家政府） Nations are sovereign (国家是主权独立的)
Nobody is in charge of the whole world economy(没有人可以掌控整个世界经济)
Nations have their separate policies(国家拥有独立的政策) （1）Factor mobility（要素流动性）
（2）Different fiscal policies（不同的财政政策） （3）Different moneys（不同的货币）
Part One: The Theory of International Trade (第一篇：国际贸易理论 第二章至第七章)
Chapter Two (第二章)
The basic theory using demand and supply
（需求与供给的基本理论）
1.Four Key Questions About International Trade(贸易的四个重要问题) 2.Demand and supply(需求与供给)
(1)Demand and Consumer surplus（需求与消费者剩余）
①Price of elasticity of demand（需求价格弹性）
The percent change in quantity demanded of a product caused by a one percent increase in the price of this product（产品价格上升一个百分点
所引起的该产品需求数量的百分比变化）
注意：需求曲线越平坦，说明越具有价格弹性 ②Consumer surplus（消费者剩余）
The difference between the value that consumers place on the units of the product that they buy and the payment that they make to obtain these units.（消费者在每单位产品上愿意支付的价格与获得这些产品实际支付的价格之间的差额）
（2）Supply and producer surplus(供给与生产者剩余)
①Price of elasticity of supply（P20） ②Supply surplus (figure 2.1)(P22)
3. Two national markets and the opening of trade（两国的市场与贸易的开展）
（1）Free Trade Equilibrium （自由贸易均衡）
What will happen when US trade with the rest of country? Buy low and sell high ----- arbitrage（套利） Note: one –dollar, one-vote metric (一元一票制) （2）Which country gains more?（哪个国家获益更多）
The country that experiences the larger price change has a larger value of the net gains from trade (经历较大价格变化的国家从贸易中获得较大的净收益)
Chapter Three (第三章)
Why Everybody Trades：Comparative Advantage
(为什么开展贸易：比较优势)
1. Adam smith′s theory of absolute advantage （斯密的绝对优势理论） （1）Mercantilism （重商主义）（P35） （2）The theory of absolute advantage
Every country will focus on producing what it does best and exports it。(各国将集中力量生产它最擅长的产品并出口它)
① How to measure “best” ?
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Labor productivity：劳动生产率
The number of units of output that a worker can produce in one hour。 Or the number of hours that it takes a worker to produce one unit of output。
② The basis of trade （贸易的基础）
There is a basis for beneficial trade if countries have an absolute advantage(如果一国具有绝对优势那么从事贸易是有利的)
2.Ricardo′s Theory of comparative advantage（李嘉图的比较优势理论） （1）The main views （主要观点）
①Ricardo focused on labor productivity (or resource productivity more generally) for different products in different countries.
②The principle of comparative advantage : A country will export products that it can produce at a low opportunity cost and import products that it would otherwise produce at a high opportunity cost.
③Basis for trade:Relative differences in labor (resource) productivity.
（2）Concepts （概念）
①Opportunity cost （机会成本）
Producing more of a product in a country is the amount of production of the other product that is give up.(一国某种产品多生产一单位是其它产品所放弃的生产数量)
②Relative price （相对价格）
3.Ricardo′s constant costs and the production-possibility curve (ppc) （1）PPC under constant costs （固定成本下的生产可能性曲线）
A curve that shows all possible combinations of amounts of different products that an economy can produce, with full employment of its resources and maximum feasible productivity of those resources。（一个经济体在资源充分就业以及资源生产率最大化条件下能够生产的不同产品数量的各种组合的曲线）
（2）Constant productivity （P41）
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The marginal or opportunity cost of each good is constant in each country.
(3)Ricardo′s conclusion
Each country then specializes in producing only the good in which it has a comparative advantage.(各国仅仅专业化生产自身具有比较优势的产品) （4）Equilibrium international price ratio(国际均衡价格比率)
Must fall within the range of the two price ratios that prevailed in each country before trade began.(必定位于贸易开始前两国产品的相对价格比率的区间内)
2.1>=international price of cloth >=0.67(bushel/yard) 0.5<=international price of wheat<=1.5(yard/bushel)
Chapter Four (第四章)
Trade：Factor availability and factor proportions are key
（贸易：要素可获取性和要素比例是关键）
Review：回顾前几章 the bases of trade（贸易的基础）
First，the differences in the demands for products in different countries(第一，不同国家产品的需求差异)
Second，the differences in technologies or resource productivities can create comparative advantage(第二，产生比较优势的技术或资源生产率的差异)
Third，the differences in factor availability are a source of comparative advantage（第三，产生比较优势的要素可获取性的差异）（本章重点）
1. Production with increasing marginal costs （边际成本递增下的生产） （1）Increasing marginal cost P50
As one industry expands its production quantity, increasing amounts of other products must be given up to get each extra unit of the expanding industry's product
(2)Is it straight line as constant cost?(固定成本的PPC线是一条直线吗？)
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Production possibilities curve under increasing costs is bowed out (边际成本递增下的生产可能性曲线是凸向原点的形状)
(3)What production combination is actually chosen?（如何选择实际的生产组合）
Specialization on only one product in constant cost case.（在固定成本
情形下只专业化生产一种产品）
It depends on the market price. （实际的生产组合取决于市场价格）
2. Community indifference curves （社会无差异曲线）P53 （1）Indifference curves P53
A curve that shows the various combinations of consumption quantities of products that give a consumer the same level of well-being or happiness。 （2）What consumption combination is actually chosen?（如何选择实际的消费组合）
Depend on the budget constrain.（取决于预算约束）
3. Production and consumption together (生产和消费相结合P55-56) （1）Without trade P55图 （2）With trade P56
（3）Demand and supply again P56 4. The gains from trade（贸易的利益）
Trade allows each country to consume at a point(C1)that lies beyond its
own possibility to produce;
trade allows each country to achieve a higher community indifference
curve
A country gains more from trade if its terms of trade increase.
Terms of trade（贸易条件）: the ratio of the (average) price that a country
receives from foreigners for its exports to the (average) price that this country pays foreigners for its imports （贸易条件是指一国从出口中收取的价格与向进口品支付的价格之间的比率）
5.Trade affects production and consumption (贸易影响生产和消费)
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6. What determines the trade pattern?（什么决定贸易模式）
Production conditional differ Consumption conditional differ
Some combination of these two differences
7. Heckscher-Ohlin Theory of Trade （赫克歇尔-俄林理论）
（1）Labor-abundant and Labor-intensive（劳动力丰裕和劳动力密集） Labor-abundant（劳动力丰裕）: A relatively labor abundant country is a country that has a higher ratio of (nationally available) labor to (nationally available) other factors than does the rest of the world. Labor-intensive（劳动力密集）：A relatively labor-intensive product is a product for which labor costs are a greater share of its value than they are of the value of other products (2) main views （主要观点）
A country will export products that use relatively intensively those production factors found relatively abundantly in the country, and import products that use relatively intensively those production factors that are relatively scarce in the country.（一国应该出口密集使用该国相对丰裕要素生产的产品，并且进口密集使用该国相对稀缺要素生产的产品）
Chapter Five (第五章)
Who Gains and Who Loses from Trade? （贸易中谁受益？谁受损？）
1.Who gains and who loses within a country(一国内部谁受益谁受损) （1）Short-run effects of opening trade（开展贸易的短期效应） Gains and losses divided by output sector: all groups tied to rising sectors gain, and all groups tied to declining sectors lose.（按照产出的产业来划分受益和受损：与上升产业相联系的所有群体受益，与缩减产业相联系的所有群体受损）
（2）Long-run effects of opening trade（开展贸易的长期效应）
Gains and losses divided by factors: factor which is intensively used in the export gains, and factor which is sparing used in the export lose.
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（按照要素来划分受益和受损：在出口中密集使用的要素受益，在出口中稀缺使用的要素受损）
2.Three implication of the H-O theory（H-O理论的三种意义）
（1）The Stopler-Samuelson theorem(S-S theorem)（斯托尔珀-萨缪尔森定理）
It
raises the real return to the factor used intensively in the
rising-price industry; it lowers the real return to the factor used intensively in the falling price industry
（2）The specialized-factor pattern（专业化要素模式）
The more a factor is specialized in the production of a product whose
relative price is rising, the more this factor stands to gain from the change in the product price
The more a factor is concentrated into the production of a product whose
relative price is falling, the more it stands to lose from the change in product price
（3）The factor-price equalization theorem（要素均等化定理）
International Factor Price Equalization
With the shift to free trade: For each factor, its rate of return becomes
more similar between countries. Under ideal conditions, its real rate of return is the same in different countries.
3.Does H-O explain actual trade patterns?（H-O理论能解释现实的贸易模式吗？）
(1)Leotief paradox( reading box) （里昂惕夫之谜）（阅读专栏P75）
US economy assumed capital-abundant relative to the rest of the world. Leotief′s results showed that us was exporting labor-intensive goods to the rest of the world in exchange for relatively capital-intensive imports.
(2)Some explanations about Leotief paradox(里昂惕夫之谜的解释)
Factor endowments (要素禀赋)
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international trade（国际贸易）
4. What are the export-oriented and import-competing factors?（什么是出口导向型和进口竞争型要素？）
（1）Its implications in policy（它的政策含义）
Figure 5.5 – A Schematic View of the Factor Content of U.S. Exports and Competing Imports
Figure 5.6 - The Factor Content of Canada’s Exports and Competing Imports 5. Do factor prices equalize internationally?（国际间要素价格会均等吗？）
Although we still do not see full factor-price equalization in the real world, there appear to be a tendency toward international factor-price equalization.（尽管在现实世界我们仍然没有看到完全的要素价格均等化，但是似乎存在一种要素价格均等化的趋势）
Chapter Six (第六章)
Scale Economies,Imperfect Competition,and Trade
(规模经济，不完全竞争和贸易)
1.Economies of scale（规模经济）
(1)Internal economies of scale（内部规模经济）
Internal scale economies: Expansion of the size of the individual firm is the basis for the decline in average cost as the firm's production quantity increases.
(2)External economies of scale（外部规模经济）
External scale economies or agglomeration economies: expansion of the size of the industry within a specified geographic area is the basis for the decline in the typical local firm’s average cost as the overall production quantity for the industry in this geographic area increases. 2. Intra-industry trade（产业内贸易）
（1）Intra-industry trade: Two-way trade in a product, in which a country both exports and imports the same or very similar products (products in the same industry)（一种产品的双向贸易，即同类产品或是相似产品既有出口
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又有进口）
How to measure IIT?（如何衡量产业内贸易）
Inter-industry vs. Intra-industry（产业间贸易与产业内贸易对比）
Inter-industry: measured by net trade which is the value of the
difference between exports and imports for the product
Intra-industry: measured by ratio of IIT
How to explain IIT?（如何解释产业内贸易）
Product differentiation（产品差异化）
SITC: 类、章、组、分组、项目 如 7 2 1 1 1
The IIT share is a number between 0 and 1.
Product differentiation（产品差异化）: Consumers view the products (or product varieties) offered by firms in an industry as being close but not perfect substitutes for each（消费者认为某一产业的各个厂商提供的产品的各个品种是相近的但是又不是完全可以替代的即产品差异化） 3. Monopolistic competition and trade (垄断竞争和贸易)
Monopolistic competition（垄断竞争P94）
A market structure in which products are differentiated, internal scale economies in production are modest or moderate, and entry and exit of firms is easy in the long run, so that a large number of firms compete vigorously with each other in producing and selling varieties of the same basic product.
(1)Monopolistic competition before trade（贸易前的垄断竞争市场）
Demand curve is downward-sloping （需求曲线是向下倾斜的）
The firm maximizes its profit when MC=MR（当边际受益等于边际成本时厂
商的利润最大）
Free entry and exit causes the profit is zero, demand curve will just
touch the average cost curve.（自由进出市场导致经济利润为零，需求曲线将与平均成本曲线相交）
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Figure 6.2 – A Monopolistic-Competitive Firm in a Market Before Trade Opens
（2）Monopolistic competition after trade（贸易后的垄断竞争市场）
Firm will face new demand curve D2 which is more elastic than before trade
demand curve D1 (why?)（厂商将面临比贸易前D1更具有弹性的一条新需求曲线D2）
The firm maximizes its profit when MC=MR
Free entry and exit causes the profit is zero, demand curve will just
touch the average cost curve.
Figure 6.3 – The Same Monopolistic Competitor in an Automobile Market after Opening Trade
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(3)Basis for trade(贸易的基础)
Economies of scale encourage production specialization for different
varieties within the same industry（规模经济鼓励同一产业内部不同品种的专业化生产）
Net trade in a product can be the result of endowment difference or the
difference in international marketing capabilities or the shifting consumer tastes.（某种产品的净贸易可能是由于禀赋的差异或是国际营销能力的差异或是消费者偏好的转变的结果）
（4）Gains from trade under monopolistic competition（贸易的利益）
Increase in the number of varieties of products（产品品种数量的增加） Lower the prices of domestic varieties（降低了国内产品的价格）
4. Oligopoly and trade(寡头垄断与贸易)
Oligopoly（寡头垄断市场结构）
A market structure in which a few large firms dominate total industry sales, perhaps because of substantial internal scale economies (or other barriers to entry)。（寡头是指少数大型厂商统治了整个产业的销售，或许由于巨额的内部规模经济或是其他的一些进入壁垒）
（1）Substantial scale economies（巨大的内部规模经济）
Production locations——internal scale economies(生产区位——内部规模经济)
（2）Oligopoly pricing(寡头市场定价权)
①Game among oligopoly firms（寡头垄断厂商之间的博弈）
②Oligopoly firms are interdependences（寡头厂商之间是相互依存的关系）
③Prisoners′ dilemma（囚徒困境）
④Pricing matters for the division of the global gains from trade(定价权对全球贸易利益分配有重要影响)
5. External scale economies and trade（外部规模经济与贸易）
（1）External economies magnify an expansion in a competition industry
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（外部规模经济扩大了竞争产业的扩张）
（2）What explains the pattern of trade that emerges in industries subject to external scale economies（如何解释具有外部规模经济的产业贸易模式） History matters（历史是至关重要的）
Chapter Seven (第七章)
Growth and Trade （经济增长与贸易）
Economic growth （经济增长）
Expansion over time in the capabilities of an economy to produce goods and services. （经济增长是指随着时间的推移一个经济体生产商品和服务的能力扩大）
the sources of long-run economic growth?（经济增长的源泉）
Increase in countries’ endowments of production factors（生产要素禀
赋的禀赋的增加）
Improvements in production technologies（生产技术的改善）
1. Balanced versus biased growth (平衡型增长与偏向型增长的对比) （1）Balanced growth（平衡型增长）
The ppc shifts out proportionally so that its relative shape is the same (生产可能性曲线按比例向外移动以至于它的相对形状是相同的) （2）Biased growth（偏向型增长）
Economic growth that favors producing relatively more of one of the products, so that the relative shape of the new production possibility curves skews toward the faster- growing product.（经济增长偏向于某一种产品生产的相对较多，以致于新的生产可能性曲线的相对形状向着生产速度较快的那种产品倾斜）
① What can cause biased growth?（什么会引起偏向型增长）
From factors endowments（要素禀赋） From technologies （技术）
2. Growth in only one factor（只有一种要素增长）
（雷布津斯基定理）Rybczynski theorem: (1) an increase in the output
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quantity of the product that uses the growing factor intensively, and (2) a decrease in the output quantity of the other product.
雷布津斯基定理：密集使用增长的要素生产的产品数量增加，并且其他产品的产出数量下降。
Figure 7.2 – Single-Factor Growth: The Rybczynski Theorem
3.Changes in the country’s willingness to trade（国家贸易意愿的变化） 4.Effects on the country’s term of trade（对一国贸易条件的影响） （1）Small country（小国）
A country whose trade (or realistic changes in its trade) does not affect international product price (小国是指该国贸易不会影响国际产品价格) （2）large country（大国）
a country whose trade (or realistic changes in its trade) affects international product price （大国是指该国的贸易会影响世界产品价格） ①the first case：Terms of trade improves（贸易条件改善）
When growth reduces the country′s willingness to trade at any given price(第一种情形：当经济增长降低了一国的贸易意愿时：即进口需求的减少降低了进口产品的价格或是出口供给的减少提高了出口产品的价格——贸易条件改善)
②the second case：Terms of trade deteriorate（贸易条件改善） When growth reduces the country′s willingness to trade(当经济增长提高了一国的贸易意愿时：即进口需求的增加提高了进口产品的价格或者出口供给的增加降低了出口产品的价格——贸易条件改善)
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（3）Immiserizing growth（贫困化增长） (figure 7.4)
Immiserizing growth
Definition: national economic growth that expands the country’s willingness to trade can result in such a large decline in the country’s terms of trade that the country is worse off . （贫困化增长是指扩大一国贸易意愿的经济增长会导致该国贸易条件大幅恶化，使该国的境况更差。）
Case :Dutch disease and deindustrialization（例子：荷兰病和去工业化）
Three conditions for Immiserizing growth to happen（贫困化增长的三个条件）
①The country’s growth must be strongly biased toward expanding the country’s supply of exports and the increase in export supply must be large enough to have a noticeable impact on world prices
②The foreign demand for the country’s exports must be price inelastic so that an expansion in the country’s export supply leads to a large drop in the international price of the export product
③Before the growth, the country must be heavily engaged in trade so that the welfare loss from the decline the terms of trade is great enough to offset the gains from being able to produce more. 5.Technology and trade(技术与贸易) （1）R&D（研发）
（2）Diffusion（技术扩散）
The spread of technologies internationally, from the countries that invent or first use the technologies to other countries that can also use the technologies
（3）Product cycle hypothesis（产品周期假说）
A theory that there is a regular pattern to production locations and international trade patterns for a product after it is invented. The product is invented and first produced in an industrialized country, so
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at first these countries export the product. Over time, production shifts to other industrialized countries and then to developing countries, so the identity of the major exporting countries also changes. （该理论认为一种产品被发明之后它的生产区位模式和贸易模式存在一个规律：该产品在工业化的国家发明出来，并且进行初期的生产，所以起初，这些工业化国家是该产品的出口国，经过一段时间后，生产转移到了其他的工业化国家和发展中国家，所以主要的出口国也相应的发生了变化。）
Chapter Eight (第八章)
Analysis of a Tariff（关税分析）
8·1 What’s tariff?（什么是关税） （1）Tariff （关税）
A tax on importing a good or service into a country （关税是指进口到一国的商品或服务征收的一种税收）
（2）Specific tariff and Ad valorem tariff （从量关税与从价关税）
Specific tariff:: A tax is stipulated as a money amount per unit of
import(从量关税是指按照每一进口单位规定一个货币数量的税收。)
Ad valorem tariff :a tax is a percentage of the estimated market value
of the goods when they reaches the importing country. (从价关税是指当商品到达进口国按照商品估算的市场价值征收一定百分比的一种税收) 8·2 The effect of a small country imposing a tariff (进口小国设置关税的效应)
参照图表Figure 8.4 – The Net National Loss from a Tariff in Two Equivalent Diagrams (P141)
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（1）Consumers lose: -（a+b+c+d）（消费者受损=-（a+b+c+d）） （2）Producers gain: +a（生产者受益=+a） （3）Government collects: +c （政府关税收入=+c）
（4）Net national loss from tariff:-（ b+d）（一国的净损失是面积b+d） （5）Net world loss from tariff:-（ b+d）（世界净损失是面积b+d，因为进口小国对世界价格不产生影响）
area b and d ：deadweight loss（面积b和d：无谓损失） ①Consumption effect (d) ：关税的消费效应（P146） ②Production effect (b) ：关税的生产效应(P146) 8·3 The effective rate of protection (有效保护率)
8·3·1 概念：Effective rate of protection: Percentage by which the entire set of a country's trade barriers raises an industry's value added per unit of output. （P142）（有效保护率是指一国整个贸易壁垒体系使某一产业的单位产出增加值提高的百分比）
8·3·2 公式：Effective rate of protection= (v’-v)/v V’: value-added after tariff（征收关税之后的价值增值） V: value-added before tariff（征收关税之前的价值增值）
8·4 The terms of trade effect and a nationally optimal tariff（贸易条件效应和国家最优关税）
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a nation with monopsony power ( a large country)（具有买方垄断特权的一个国家）
参照图表Figure 8.5 – A Large Country Imposes a Small Tariff （P149）
(1)consumers lose: a+b+c+d（消费者受损=-(a+b+c+d)） (2)producers gain: a（生产者受益=+a） (3)government gains: c+e(政府关税收入=+c+e) Who really pays the tariff? （谁真正支付了关税）
Tariff is burden partly by domestic consumer and partly by foreign exporter when the importing country is a large country.（进口大国的关税部分由本国消费者负担，部分由外国出口商负担）
Note: Tariff is only burden by domestic consumer when the importing country is a small country（注意：进口小国的关税完全由本国消费者负担） (4) Net effect of importing country:-b-d+e(一国的净效应=e-b-d,如果结果是正值表示一国是净收益的，如果是负值表示一国是净损失的)
（5）Net world loss from tariff:-（ b+d+f）（世界净损失=-（b+d+f），因为进口大国对世界价格产生影响，商品国际价格下降）
Net effect of foreign exporters外国出口商的净效应：净损失=-（e+f) Net effect of importing country进口国的净效应：e-(b+d) 8·5 Nationally optimal tariff（国家最优关税）
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The tariff rate that creates the largest possible net gain in well-being for the country that imposes the tariff. （国家最优关税是指设置的关税可以使一国的净福利达到最大化的关税率）
The optimal tariff equals the reciprocal of the price elasticity of foreign supply of our imports
（最优关税率等于我们进口产品的外国供给价格弹性的倒数）（P149）
Chapter nine 第九章
Nontariff Barriers to Imports （进口的非关税壁垒）
9·1 Types of nontariff barriers to imports （进口非关税壁垒的种类） Nontariff barriers(NTB):Any policy, other than a tariff, used by the government of a country to reduce imports of a specific product （非关税壁垒是指除了关税之外，一国政府使用的减少特定产品进口的任何政策） 9·2 The import quota （进口配额） 9·2·1 Import quota
A limit on the (maximum) total quantity of imports of a product allowed into a country during a period of time （进口配额是指在一定期间内对允许进入一国的某种商品进口总数量的限制措施）
9·2·2 The Effects of an Import Quota under Competitive Conditions （竞争条件下进口配额的效应）
9·2·2·1 Small Importing Country case (figure 9.2) （进口小国的情形） Figure 9.2 – The Effects of an Import Quota under Competitive Conditions, Small Importing Country （进口小国在竞争条件下实行进口配额的效应分析）P160
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(1)Domestic producers gain: a（国内生产者受益=+a）
(2)Domestic consumers lose:-(a+b+c+d)(国内消费者受损=-(a+b+c+d)) (3)Where does the benefit from the import quota go?（来自进口配额的利益面积C去哪了？）
Depends on the ways how to allocate import licenses（这取决于进口配额许可证的非配方式）
Ways to allocate import licenses（进口配额的分配方式） ①Fixed favoritism（固定受惠对象）P162
Import licenses adding up to the total quota can be allocated for free on the basis of fixed favoritism, in which the government simply assigns the licenses to firms or individuals without competition, applications, or negotiations. （政府可以按照固定受惠方式免费发配配额，在这种方式下，政府只是简单的将许可证分配给企业或是个人，而不是采取竞争、申请或是谈判的方式。）
Where will area c go?(面积C由谁获得)
Area c is then a redistribution of well-being from domestic consumers in the importing country to the favored importers with the quota licenses （那么面积C是由进口国内的消费者的福利重新分配给了受惠的进口配额许可证的进口商：即固定受惠方式面积C由本国进口商获得）
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②Auction(拍卖)：P163 Where will area c go?
The government gets c（拍卖方式政府获得面积C的部分） ③Resource-using procedures（资源使用申请程序）P163
The firms or individuals that want to obtain the licenses must use some costly procedure (such as first-come, first served; demonstrating need or worthiness; or negotiations) to compete to acquire the licenses from the government. （企业或是个人必须相互竞争才能获得进口许可，比方说先到先得，论证需求和价值的方式或是谈判的方式） Where will area c go?
面积c will used up in the rent-seeking activities（面积C 在寻租过程中被浪费掉了，资源使用申请程序面积C谁也没有获得，成为社会的损失） (4)在固定受惠对象和拍卖时Net national effect(国家净效应)=-（b+d） 在资源使用申请程序时Net national effect(国家净效应)=-（b+c+d） (5)在固定受惠对象和拍卖时Net world effect(世界净效应)=-（b+d） 在资源使用申请程序时Net world effect(世界净效应)=-（b+c+d） 9·2·2·2 large Importing country case（进口大国的情形）
Figure 9.3 – The Effects of an Import Quota under Competitive Conditions, Large Importing Country （竞争条件下进口大国实行配额的效应）P167
①Domestic producers gain: a(国内生产者受益=+a)
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②Domestic consumers lose:-(a+b+c+d)(国内消费者受损=-(a+b+c+d)) ③Where does the benefit from the import quota go?（进口配额的受益面积c+e哪去了:在固定受惠对象或是拍卖时，面积c+e由进口本国获得） ④Net national well-being: e-(b+d)（国家的净福利= e-(b+d)）
⑤Net world well-being：世界的净福利=外国出口商受损=-（e+f）与进口国净福利= e-(b+d)的总和，即世界的净福利=-（b+d+f） 9·3 Voluntary export restrains（自愿出口限制） 9·3·1 Definition(定义:P167)
The importing country government compels the foreign exporting country to agree “voluntarily” to restrict its export to this country .(进口国政府强迫出口国同意自愿限制对该国的出口) 9·3·2 The effect of VER （VER 的效应）
Please compare with import quota（与进口配额的小国大国情形比较：很相似） 9·3·2·1 small Importing country case（进口小国实行VER的情形：参考P160图9-2）
①Domestic producers gain: a(国内生产者受益=+a)
②Domestic consumers lose:-(a+b+c+d)(国内消费者受损=-(a+b+c+d)) ③Where does the benefit from the VER go?（VER的受益面积c哪去了:面积c由外国出口商获得）
④Net national well-being: -(b+c+d)（国家的净福利= -(b+c+d)） ⑤Net world well-being：世界的净福利=外国出口商受益=+c与进口国净福利= -(b+c+d)的总和，即世界的净福利=-（b+d）
9·3·2·2 large Importing country case（进口大国实行VER的情形：参照P167图9-3）
Figure 9.3 – The Effects of an Import Quota under Competitive Conditions, Large Importing Country （竞争条件下进口大国实行配额的效应）P167
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①Domestic producers gain: a(国内生产者受益=+a)
②Domestic consumers lose:-(a+b+c+d)(国内消费者受损=-(a+b+c+d)) ③Where does the benefit from the VER go?（VER的受益面积c+e哪去了，面积c+e由外国出口商获得）
④Net national well-being: -(b+c+d)（国家的净福利= -(b+c+d)） ⑤Net world well-being：世界的净福利=外国出口商收益=（c+e）-（e+f）与进口国净福利= -(b+c+d)的总和，即世界的净福利=-（b+d+f）
9·4 How big are the costs of protection?（贸易保护的成本有多大？） 9·4·1 As a percentage of GDP(贸易保护成本占GDP的百分比) Net national loss from the tariff / GDP
=1/2 *tariff rate * (percent reduction in import quantity)*( import value/ GDP)
9·4·2 How much does it cost society for each dollar of protected income?(被保护的每一美元收入要社会付出多大代价？) ①被威胁产业占GDP的百分比 ②进口壁垒的程度：比如关税率的大小 ③生产者剩余的收益=①*②
④进口壁垒的保护成本占GDP的百分比 ⑤社会额外付出的成本损失=④/③
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⑥被保护的每一美元收入需要社会付出的总成本=1美元+⑤
Chapter Ten (第十章)
Arguments for and against Protection（支持和反对贸易保护的观点） 10·1 The Source of Distortions(扭曲的原因：P187)
market failures （市场失灵）
Including: Externalities or spillover effects(包括外部性或称为溢出效应)
government policies（政府政策）：Tax-or-subsidiy 税收或是补贴政策 10·2 Government policies toward externalities （面对外部性政府采取的政策措施P188）
Tax-or-subsidiy approach（税收或是补贴的方法） Property-righs approach（产权制度的方法） 10·3 The specificity rule（对症规则：P189）
Specificity Rule:to address the inefficiency caused by a distortion (such as that caused by an externality), it is usually more efficient to use the government policy tool that acts as directly as possible on the source of the distortion separating private and social benefits or costs. (为了解决由于扭曲引起的无效率，对症规则认为政府的政策工具尽可能直接地作用于那些造成私人利益与社会利益或者两者的成本不同的根源上，这样会更有效。)
(1)If an externality is present, government policy should intervene as directly as possible on the specific source of the externality, to most enhance national economic efficiency.(如果一个外部性存在，政府政策应该尽可能直接对外部性的具体根源进行干预，来尽力提高国家的经济效率) (2)If a country has some other objective, government policy should intervene as directly as possible on the specific objective, to minimize the national economic cost of achieving the other objective (that is, to minimize the amount of economic inefficiency created).（如果一国有某些其他的目标，政府政策应该尽可能直接对特定的目标进行干预，使产生的经济成
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本最小化）
Key: Identify the specific problem clearly, then use a policy to attack the problem directly. （对症规则的关键：清楚地识别具体的问题，然后使用政策直接干预问题的根源）
10·4 Infant industry argument（幼稚产业理论P193）
10·4 ·1 Infant industry argument asserts that a temporary tariff is justified because it cuts down on imports while the infant domestic industry learns how to produce at low enough costs, eventually the domestic industry will be able to compete without the help of tariff.(幼稚产业理论认为，一个暂时性的关税政策是有合理性的，因为当本国的幼稚产业学习如何以足够低的成本进行生产的时候关税减少了进口，最终本国的幼稚产业在没有关税的帮助下将能力参与竞争。)
10·4 ·2 How It Is Supposed to Work(幼稚产业理论是如何起作用的？：P194) Figure 10.3 – The Infant Industry Argument
（1）目前幼稚产业进行关税保护期间的国内市场：目前的净损失=-（b+d）
（2）在未来，幼稚产业成长起来后以世界标准进行竞争型的生产：未来的净收益=+v
10·4 ·3 How valid is it?（幼稚产业理论的有效性如何？）
(1)Is any government policy really needed?(真的需要政府的政策吗？) (2)If the government is going to provide assistance, what government policy is best ?（如果政府提供提供政策援助，什么样的政府政策是最好的？）
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(3)Will the infant industry really grow up?（幼稚产业真的会成长起来吗？）
Chapter Eleven (第十一章) Pushing Exports（促进出口）
11·1 Dumping （倾销）
11·1·1 Definition（定义 P213）
Dumping is selling exports at a price that is “too low,” a price below “normal value” or “fair market value.”（倾销是指以过低的价格销售出口品，即以低于正常价值或是公平市场价格进行出口销售）
The two legal definitions of normal value (正常价值的两个合法定义) The first definition of normal value is the price charged to comparable domestic buyers in the home market(or to comparable buyers in other markets).(第一种正常价值的定义是指可比的国内购买者在国内市场支付的价格或是可比的购买者在其他市场支付的价格)
The second definition of normal value is cost-based——the average cost of producing the product, including overhead costs and profit.(第二种正常价值的定义是指基于成本的，即指包括经营成本和利润的产品的平均生产成本。)
11·1·2 Types （类型：P214） Predatory dumping（掠夺性倾销）
是指厂商暂时性地以低价格向国外市场出口商品，其目的是将国外竞争者逐出市场，一旦竞争者被迫退出，该厂商将利用其垄断力量提高价格，获取暴利。 Cyclical dumping（周期性倾销）
是指发生于经济衰退期，在经济周期的需求较弱的阶段，厂商往往是以降低价格来阻止销量的衰退。
Seasonal dumping（季节性倾销） 目的是出售过量的库存产品。 Persistent dumping（持久性倾销）
是指拥有市场控制力的厂商在不同市场之间实行价格歧视，以便增加其总利润。 11·1·3 Figure 11.1 - Persistent Dumping ：(持久性倾销)P215
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（你认为持久性倾销有效发挥作用的条件是什么？）
What condition do you think for persistent dumping to work effectively?
It has less monopoly in the foreign market than it has in its home market
（出口厂商在外国市场比在国内市场缺乏垄断力量）
Buyers in the home country cannot avoid the high home prices by buying
the good abroad and importing it cheaply.（国内的购买者不能在国外买到或是更低价格的进口到该产品） 11·2 Export subsidies （出口补贴） 11·2·1 Definition （定义：P224）
Government financial assistance to firms based on how much of a product the firms export.(是指政府对厂商出口的每一单位产品给予的财政援助。) 11·2·2 The economic effect of export subsidies in the following three cases （出口补贴在如下三种情形下的效应）
11·2·2·1 small exporting country（出口补贴的小国情形P225） Figure 11.3 - Export Subsidy, Small Country, Exportable Product
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①Domestic producers gain: +(e+f+g)(国内生产者受益=+(e+f+g) ②Domestic consumers lose:-(e+f)(国内消费者受损=-(e+f))
③the costs from the export subsidies: -（f+g+h）（出口补贴的成本=-（f+g+h）） ④Net national well-being: -(f+h)（国家的净福利= -(f+h)） ⑤Net world well-being：世界的净福利= -(f+h)
11·2·2·2 Exportable product –large exporting country（出口补贴的大国情形:P226）
Figure 11.4 - Export Subsidy, Large Country, Exportable Product
①Domestic producers gain: +(e+f+g)(国内生产者受益=+(e+f+g) ②Domestic consumers lose:-(e+f)(国内消费者受损=-(e+f)) ③The costs from the export subsidies: -（f+g+h+i+j+k+l+m） （出口补贴的成本=-（f+g+h+i+j+k+l+m））
④Net national well-being: -(f+h+i+j+k+l+m)=-(f+h+n+r+t+u)（国家的净
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福利= -(f+h+i+j+k+l+m)=-(f+h+n+r+t+u)） ⑤Net world well-being：世界的净福利= -(f+h+u) 出口国的净损失=-(f+h+n+r+t+u) 进口国的净收益=+(n+r+t)
11·2·2·3 Switching an importable product into an exportable product（出口补贴使得产品由进口向出口的转变：P228）
Figure 11.5 – An Export Subsidy Turns an Importable Product into an Export
①Domestic producers gain: +ACFE(国内生产者受益=+ACFE) ②Domestic consumers lose:-ABJE(国内消费者受损=-ABJE)
③the costs from the export subsidies （出口补贴的成本=-BCHG） ④Net national well-being: -(BJG+CHF)（国家的净福利= -(BJG+CHF)）
Chapter Twelve (第十二章)
Trade Blocs and Trade Blocks （贸易集团和贸易禁运）
12·1 Types of economic blocs (贸易集团的类型) 12·1·2 Trade bloc（贸易集团）：（P241）
贸易集团是指集团内的成员国可以从其他成员国自由进口或者以低关税进口，而对非成员国的进口设置贸易壁垒 (1)Free-trade area (自由贸易区)
在自由贸易区内，各成员国取消了它们之间的贸易壁垒，但是各自仍对非成员国保持着不同的贸易壁垒。 (2)Custom union （关税同盟）
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在关税同盟内，各成员国同样取消了它们之间的贸易壁垒，而且对关税同盟的非成员国设置了共同的贸易壁垒。 (3)Common market （共同市场）
在共同市场内，除了关税同盟制度外，还允许要素在成员国之间自由流动（例如劳动力和资本）
(4)Economic union （经济同盟）
在完全的经济同盟内，成员国实行统一的经济政策，包括货币、财政、福利以及贸易和要素流动政策。
12·2 The basic theory of trade blocs: trade creation and trade diversion（贸易集团的基本理论：贸易创造和贸易转移）
12·2·1 The definitions of Trade creation and Trade diversion（贸易创造和贸易转移的定义p244）
Trade creation :The net volume of new trade resulting from forming or joining a trade bloc。（贸易创造是指由建立或者加入贸易集团所导致的贸易净增加量。）
Trade diversion :The volume of trade shifted from low-cost outside exporters to higher-cost bloc-partner exporters, resulting from forming or joining a trade bloc。（贸易转移是指建立或是加入贸易集团使贸易量从集团外的低成本商转向集团内高成本出口商）
12·2·2 The Effect of Joining a Trade Bloc(加入贸易集团后的效应分析P245 )
Figure 12.2 – Trade Diversion versus Trade Creation in Joining a Trade Bloc: UK Market for Imported Compact Cars（加入贸易集团贸易转移与贸易创造的对比：英国进口紧凑型轿车的市场）
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(1)消费者剩余收益=+（a+b） (2)关税的损失=-（a+c）
(3)一国的净效应=b-c(一国的净效应包括两部分:其结果可正也可负=贸易创造的b减去贸易转移的c)
①Trade creation=+b
Area b represents two gains: gains on extra consumption of the product and gains on replacement of higher-cost by low-cost partner production（面积b代表了两部分收益：消费更多的产品的收益，以及高成本生产被集团成员国低成本的生产所取代产生的收益）
②Trade diversion=-c
Area c represents the national loss from the low-cost outside exporters to higher-cost bloc-partner exporters(面积c表示的是由于从集团外低成本的出口商转向集团内高成本的出口商所产生的国民损失) 12·2·3 Some conclusions P245-246
（1）The gains from a trade bloc are tied to trade creation and the losses are tied to trade diversion(P245 贸易集团产生的收益与贸易创造有关，贸易集团产生的损失与贸易转移有关)
（2）The lower the partner costs relative to the outside-world costs, the greater the gains. Any trade diversion will be less costly.（成员
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国与集团以外的国家的相比，成本越低，成员国获得收益就越大，贸易转移的成本就越小。）
（3）The more elastic the import demand, the greater the gains. The trade creation in response to any domestic price decline will be greater.（进口需求的弹性越大，成员国的收益就越大。任何因国内的价格下降而引起的贸易创造会越大。）
12·2·4 Other possible gains from a trade bloc
(1)An increase in competition can reduce prices(竞争的增加导致价格下降) (2)An increase in competition can lower costs of production（竞争的增加可以降低生产的成本）
(3)Firms can lower costs by expanding their scale of production（公司可以扩大生产规模来降低成本）
(4)Increases opportunities for business investments（增加商业投资的机会）
12·3 Trade Embargoes贸易禁运 P255 12·3·1 Definition (定义：P241)
Trade Embargoes or trade blocks:贸易禁运是指一些国家完全歧视另外一些国家。这通常是由于政策争端引起的。它们禁止某些商品、服务、资产出口或是流入到这些特定的国家，然而允许本国商品服务等出口或流入到其他国家，或者禁止对这些特定国家的出口和进口。
12·3·2 The effect of trade embargoes (贸易禁运的效应分析)
Figure 12.4 – Effects of an Embargo on Exports to Iraq(禁止向伊拉克出口的效应分析 P256)
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(1)Embargoing countries lose=-a(实行禁运国家的损失=-a) (2)Embargoed countries lose=-(b+c)(被禁运国家的损失=-(b+c)) (3)Other countries gain=+b（其他国家收益=+b） (4)The net world loss=-(a+c)（世界净损失=-(a+c)）
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