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乔姆斯基认为小孩生来就 有能力学习任何人类语言 之_
时间：2021.02.05 创作：欧阳科
张铁城发送2016、1、 简介
下面都是英语，没有译文。多数网友能够看懂那些孩子和大人 的对话。至于，—开始看到的相关隍论简介|中,确实有一些 生词。但是，70%左右应该是|一级扁汇|,不穆你就像我那样, 试着做恫汇级别统计看看如何。
乔姆斯基简介 诺姆•乔姆斯基博士（Avram Noam Chomsky, 1928年12月7 日-）或译作“荷姆斯基”，台湾常译作“杭士基”，美国哲学 家、语言学家、认知学家、逻辑学家、政治评论家。乔姆斯基 是麻省理工学院语言学的荣誉退休教授，他的《生成语法》被 认为是20世纪理论语言学研究上的重要贡献。他对伯尔赫 斯•弗雷德里克•斯金纳所著《口语行为》的评论，也有助于发 动心理学的认知革命，挑战1950年代研究人类行为和语言方 式中占主导地位的行为主义。他所采用以自然为本来研究语言 的方法也大大地影响了语言和心智的哲学研究。他的另一大成 就是建立了乔姆斯基层级：根据“文法生成力”不同而对形式语 言做的分类。…… 正是在此期间，乔姆斯基开始更加公开地参与政治。随
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着他 1967年在《纽约书评》上发表的一篇题为「知识分子的责 任」的文章，乔姆斯基成为越南战争的主要反对者之一。从那 时起，乔姆斯基便因他的政治立场而出名，对世界各地的政局 发表评论，并撰写了大量著作。他对美国外交政策及美国权力 合法性的批判影响深远，并因而成为富有争议的人物。他有左 派的忠诚追随者，但也受到右派及自由派越来越多的批评，尤 其是针对他对911事件的反应。
对美国外交政策的批评给乔姆斯基带来了人身威胁。他的名字 被列在特奥多•卡克辛斯基 仃heodore Kaczynski, 「邮箱炸弹 杀手」）的预定名单上。在卡氏被捕以前，乔姆斯基让人检查 收到的邮件以防炸弹。他自称也经常被警察保护，特别是在麻 省理工校园的时候，虽然他本人原则上不同意这种保护。
尽管对美国百般批评，乔姆斯基还是生活在美国。他的解释 是：美国仍然是世界上最伟大的国家。后来他又阐发为：「国 与国之间的综合比较没有什么意义，我也不会这么比较。不过 美国有些成就，特别是在言论自由方面几个世纪来争得的领先 地位，是值得敬仰的。”
Chomsky believes children are born with an ability to learn any human language・
i love english language 4.1 child language acquisition theory 一 chomsky, crystal, Aitchison & piaget Chomsky
Noam Chomsky believes that children are born with an inherited
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ability to learn any human language・ He claims that certain linguistic structures which children use so accurately must be already imprinted on the child's mind. Chomsky believes that every child has a 'Ianguage acquisition device* or LAD which encodes the major principles of a Ianguage and its grammatical structures into the child's brain・ Children have then only to learn new vocabulary and apply the syntactic structures from the LAD to form sentences・ Chomsky points out that a child could not possibly learn a language through imitation alone because the language spoken around them is highly irregular - adult's speech is often broken up and even sometimes ungrammatical. Chomsky's theory applies to all languages as they all contain nouns, verbs, consonants and vowels and children appear to be 'hard ・wired' to acquire the grammar. Every Ianguage is extremely complex, often with subtle distinctions which even native speakers are unaware of. However, all children, regardless of their intellectual ability, become flue nt in their n ative language within five or six years. Evidence to support Chomsky's theory • Children learning to speak never make grammatical errors such as getting their subjects, verbs and objects in the wrong order.
・ If an adult deliberately said a grammatically incorrect sentence, the child would notice・
・ Children often say things that are ungrammatical such as 'mama ball', which they can not have lear nt passivel y. ・ Mistakes such as *1 drawed1 instead of 1 drew* show they are not learning through imitation alone.
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・ Chomsky used the sente nee 'colourless gree n ideas sleep furiously*, which is grammatical although it does n't make sen se, to prove his theory: he said it shows that sentences can be grammatical without having any meani ng, that we can tell the d if fere nee between a grammatical and an ungrammatical sentence without ever having heard the sentence before, and that we can produce and understand brand new sentences that no one has ever said before. Evidence against Chomsky's theory ・ Critics of Chomsky's theory say that although it is clear that children don't learn Ianguage through imitation alone, this does not prove that they must have an LAD 一 language learning could merely be through general learning and understanding abilities and interactions with other people・ Dialogue - Parent and Child (3 years old) Pare nt: What did you do today?
Child: Me drawed a cat. (applies -ed suffix rule but gets wrong) Pare nt: You drew a cat?
Child: Yeah・(understands correction) Pare nt: Who did you play with at breaktime?
Child: Me played with Sarah and Helen. (wrong pronoun 一 not learnt passively)
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Pare nt: That sound fun. Now what do you want for tea? Child: Dunno. What you having? Pare nt: Daddy and I are havi ng fish.
Child: You having fishes? (incorrect use of plural noun but shows child applying rules)
Pare nt: Yes. Til do you some fish fingers and if you're a good girl and eat them all you can have a sweetie・ (applying plural noun rule)
Child: Me want two sweeties.
Pare nt: Alright then ・ Now go and watch Postma n Pat while I start the tea・
Child: When Daddy coming home? (gets SVO order correct all the time)
Pare nt: He,ll be here soon. David Crystal
David Crystal's Theory On Child Language Acquisition Professor Crystal is best known for his two encyclopaedias The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language and The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language・ So what does this have to do with child Ianguage acquisition? David Crystal has the theory that children tearn language in five stages, which are n't clearly defined and some tie in with each other. These stages are:
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Stage One: This is where children say things for three purposes: i・ To get something they want 2. To get someone's attention 3. To draw attention to something
Then they begin to make basic statements such as udaddy car” During this stage children begin naming things with single words and then move on to relating objects with other things, places and people, for example, uthere mummy”. They also relate objects with eve nt s, for example, ubird gone”.
At this early stage they don't have much vocabulary so they use intonation to ask a question. Children use words like: “there, want and allgone” to express a full sentence. This could be said that part of this stage is holophrastic・ Stage Two: This is when children usually ask questions, \"where” questions come first. Their questions often begin with interrogative pronouns (what, where) followed by a noun or verb such as
uwhere gone?”
Children become concerned with naming and classifying things by frequently asking \"Wassat?” They may also begin to talk about the characteristics of things for example: big/small・ Children are taught to learn things in opposite pairs such as up/down and hot/cold. Stage Three: By now children would be asking lots of different questions but often signalling that they are questions with intonation alone, for example: uSally play in garden mummy?” This is made into a question by varying the tone of voice. Children soon begin to
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express more complex wants by using more grammatically correct language, for example: ul want mummy to take it work” meaning \"I want mummy to take it to work”
Verbs such as “listerT and \"know” are also used・ Children refer to events in the past and less often in the future・ They usually talk about continuing action for examples: ushe still in bed\" and ask about the state of actions (whether something is finished or not)
The basic sentence structure has expanded such as:
[subject]+[verb]+[object]+[adverb or any other element used] Sente nces like: uYou dry han ds” and UA man dig down there” begin to appear and auxiliary verbs are used in sentences such as “I am going” and phrases like “on the table\" [preposition]+ [article]+ [noun] Stage Four: This is when children use increasingly complex sentence structures and begin to: • Explain things
• Ask for explanations using the word: “why?” • Maki ng a wide range of requests: ushall I do it?”
Now they are able to use complex sentence structures they have flexible language tools for expressing a wide range of meanings・ Probably
the
most
remarkable
development
is
their
comprehension of Ianguage and use of abstract verbs for example \"know” to express mental operations. They begin to communicate meaning indirectly by replacing imperatives such as “give me\" with questions; “can I have?” As well as saying what they mean they now have pragmatic understanding and suit their utterances
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to context or situation. Children also use negation
(denial/contradiction) for example: uhe does n't want on e!” They don't rely on intonation and signals anymore as they explain more fully. They are now able to use auxiliary verbs and may duplicate modal verbs “please, can I, may I” This could be showing that “may” is required for courtesy whilst \"can” indicates being able to do something. And Finally*■ Stage Five: By this stage children regularly use Ianguage to do all the things that they need it for. They give information, asking and answering questions, requesting directly and indirectly, suggesting, offering, stating and expressing・
Children are now able to talk about things hypothetically and conditionally for example ulf I were you, I would…” They are now able to explain conditions required for something to happen; “You've got turn the tap on first in order to wash your han ds” As well as maki ng general ref ere nces to past and future, children now talk about particular times such as: “after tea\" and
ubefore bedtime\"
By this stage children are very comfortable with all questions beginning with words like: uWhat?n and “When?” where the subject and verb are reversed such as uwhat does that mean?\"
乔姆斯基认为小孩生来就有能力学习任何人类语言之二 张铁城发送2016、1、
Scripts Stage 1: Child: Allgone!
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Mother: Yes, the milk is all gone. Child: Mummy, here. Mother Mummy's here. Child: Want more!
Mother Thafs enough milk now・ Child: No, more・
Mother Look at dolly, she's sleeping. Child: Dolly, there?
Mother: Yes, dolly is in the bed. Child: Dolly bye-bye. Stage 2: Child: Where's Daddy?
Mother: Outside, look? Child: Outside hot. Mother Yes it's sunny. Child: Wassat? Mother It's a book. Child: Big book. Mother Good girl. Stage 3: Child: Daddy is sleeping?
Mother: Uhuh Daddy's sleeping on the couch isn't he? Child: Him wake up!
Mother: No because he is sleeping. That would n't be very nice would it?
Child: I want Daddy. Stage 4: Mother What would you like for lunch? Sandwiches? Pasta?
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Child: Please, may, can I have ham? Mother: On sandwiches? Child: *nods*
Mother Whafs the magic word? Child: Please!
Mother Do you want a cup of orange juice?
Child: *shakes head* Not that one・ Can I have apple juice? Stage 5: Mother Did you have a good day at school today?
Child: Yeah, I played aeroplanes with Jake・ I want to be an aeroplane driver when I'm older. Mother A pilot?
Child: Yeah and fly to the moon・
Mother: No thafs an astronaut. Do you want to be a pilot or and astronaut?
Child: I would like to be an astra-, astra- Mother aut.
Scripts Stage 1: Child: Allgone! Holophrase to express a full sente nee. They are operators when manipulating Ianguage this way. Mother Yes, the milk is all gone・
Child: Mummy, here・ Only a statement as they don't have much vocab or Ianguage forms that they can control. Mother: Mummy's here・
Child: Want more!
Mother Thafs enough milk now. Child: No, more. Direct imperative. Mother Look at dolly, she's sleeping・
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Child: Dolly, there? Intonation to ask question. Mother Yes, dolly is in the bed. Child: Dolly bye-bye. Stage 2: Contraction = passively
Child: Where's Daddy? Begin to ask questions usually beginning with 'where' — interrogative pronoun. Mother Outside, look?
Child: Outside hot・ Able to describe characteristics・ Mother Yes it's sunny. Child: Wassat? Holophrase. Mother: It's a book.
Child: Big book. Able to describe concrete nouns with descriptive adjectives・ Mother Good girl. Stage 3: Child: Daddy is sleeping? Intonation = passively. 'sleeping1 ・ able to use and understand continuous action.
Mother Uhuh Daddy*s sleeping on the couch isn't he? Parentese ・
Child: Him wake up! More complex command but words mixed up.
Mother: No because he is sleeping. That would n't be very nice would it?
Child: I want Daddy・ Complex want structured correctly = Subject + Verb + Object ・ Stage 4: Mother uses more complex sentences as child can understand them・
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Mother What would you like for lunch? Sandwiches? Pasta? Prompting ・
Child: Please, may, can I have ham? Duplicate modal verbs・ Indirect as replaces imperative with question as learning manners/rules of general conversation. Mother On sandwiches? Child: *nods*
Mother Whafs the magic word? Pragmatic. Child: Please!
Mother Do you want a cup of orange juice?
Child: *shakes head* Not that one・ Can I have apple juice? Able to use gestures/signals. Negation. Stage 5: Mother Did you have a good day at school today? Able to give information about his/her day. Knows time phrase for future. Child: Yeah, I played aeroplanes with Jake・ I want to be an aeroplane driver when I'm older. Mother A pilot?
Child: Yeah and fly to the moon. Expressing exactly and has knowledge i.e. actually knows about the moon.
Mother No thafs an astronaut. Do you want to be a pilot or and astronaut?
Child: I would like to be an astra-, astra・ Able to use conditional tense. Trying to pronounce as it is a difficult word. Mother:・naut.
Development of Grammar The learning of grammar is an unnoticeable process and it happens very quickly. Over three or four years, children master the grammar of the Ianguage・ When they attend their first
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school, they give the impression of having assimilated at least 3/4 of all grammar there is to learn. Stages of Grammatical Growth: The earliest stage is hardly like grammar at all, as it consists of utterances of only one word Iong, for example 'dada' or 'hi'・ Approximately 60% of these words have a naming function and 20% express and action. Most children of around 12-18 months go through this stage, known as the holophrastic stage as they put the equivale nt of a whole sentence into a single word・
This next stage is more like real grammar from 18 months to 2 years・ It is known as the two・word stage as the children put 2 words together to make one sentence structure. For example, *cat jump' which is subject + verb, or 'shut door1 which is verb + object・ By the end of this stage we are left with the impression that children have learned several basic lessons about English word order.
This next stage is filling simple sen tence patter ns by adding extra elements of clause structure and making the elements more complex・ 3 elements for example 'Daddy got car' and then 4 elements 'you go bed now', show this progress. Or the children start to ask questi ons like * where Daddy put car?\\ This takes up much of the third year and is known as the telegraphic stage as simple words like determiners e.g. the, are left out but the sentence is still understood・
At 3 years, sentences become much longer as the children string clauses together to express more complex thoughts and to tell simple stories. Children at this stage commonly use 'and' or other linking words such as 'because： 'so： 'then' etc・
At 4 years, the children are 'sorting out' their grammar. For
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example most children at the age of 3 % might say 'him gived the cheese to the mouses1. However at 4 % years they would say *he gave the cheese to the mice*. This explains that they have learnt the forms of the irregular noun 'mice' and the verb 'gave； and the pronoun 'he'.
After 4 % years, there are still features of grammar to be used such as sentence-connecting features・ This process will continue until early teens when the learning of grammar becomes more indistinguishable.
Active with Passive Crystal carried out an experiment testing whether children at certain ages used active or passive sentences・ His study shows that at around 3 years old, none of the children produced a passive sentence. However as he tested older children they were beginning to use more passive sentences・ At 7 years, the ability to use passives dramatically increased・
Foundation Year Crystal believes that language acquisition is not just about producing sounds, but also about being able to perceive sounds and understand the meaning of utterances that people make・
He says that babies respond to different types of sounds by being able to distinguish between different voices. Before the babies are 1 day old they can tell which is their mother's voice to some one else's voice ・ As well as contrasts in intonation and rhythm・ The babies also show signs of comprehension between 2 and 4 months・ They do this by responding to different adult tones of voice such as angry or soothi ng.
Betwee n 6 and 9 mon ths, the child lear ns to recog nise d if
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fere nt utterances in situations for example 'clap hands1 or *say bye-bye1.
Towards the end of the first years, the children show a sign of verbal learning whether it is names of people or objects. Therefore knowing the meaning of at least 20 words by the end of the first year before even uttering a word.
Overall CrystaPs theory was that children learn in amorphous stages by trial and error to successfully learn the language・ They learn in stages of grammar, different types of questioning e.g. intonation and recognising the rhythms of voices・ Jean Aitchison
Jean Aitchison is a Rupert Murdoch Professor of Language and
Communication in the Faculty of English Language and Literature
at the University of Oxford.
Idea that 'language has a biologically organized schedule\"・ Children everywhere follow a similar pattern. In their first few weeks, babies mostly cry. As Ronald Knox once said: *A loud noise at one end, and no sense of responsibility at the other.1 Crying exercises the lungs and vocal cords・ But crying may once have had a further evoluti on ary purpose ・ Yelling babies may have reminded parentsthat their offspring exist: deaf ringdoves forget about their existing brood, and go off and start another. In 1987, she identified three stagesoccur during a child's acquisition of vocabulary: labeling, packaging and network building.
1. Labeling 一 The first stage and invoIves making the link 欧阳科创编
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between the sounds of particular words and the objects to which
they refer e.g. understanding that \"mummy” refers to the child's mother. In other words, associating a name with something. 2. Packaging 一 This entails understanding a word's range of meaning. This is when Over extension and Under extension
become a hurdle in the development of the Ianguage・ 3. Network Building 一 This involves grasping the conn ections between words; un derstandi ng that some words are opposite in meaning.Aitchison argued that there are no EXACT dates to which a child reaches a certain stage of learning language 一 some children learn faster than others・ She believed that the speed of learning is influenced by both innate abilities and environment. Language is partly learned by imitation, so parents and brothers/sisters play a role in the acceleration of learning the Ianguage・ Baby talk whilst learning to speak could hinder the child in learning to speak later on. Speech timetable created from birth to ten years old.
Dialogues:!.) According to Aitcheson's Timetable of Speech, children grasp the use of single words at month 12. M: Mmm! isn't that nice? C: More.
M: Okay! Here comes the aero plane! C:Yeh. 2.)
By the age of 2, the understanding of word endings begins to
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appear. However, it*s a bit complicated at times for the child to always get it right, as some past tense verbs require no ending and it is placed by the child anyway・ This is an example of them learning actively.
D: Are you going to tell Mummy what you did today? C: I roded on a horsie!!
3. ) During the age of 2 is when Aitchison believes negatives are formed and the ability to ask questions is developed: M: Catch! *throws ball*
C: *misses* Why didn't I caught it? M: It's alright, smile don't sulk! C:l not crying.
4. ) At 5 years the child is able to speak using complex constructions and rarely faults:
C: Can I go to Joes for tea? We are going to play football in the park like last week・ M: If you stay clean C: Whatever!
This is the process of language acquisition. Naturally, children will vary individually when they reach each stage but there is little variation in the sentence of Ianguage learning・ By the end, a child's language is in place and (s)he has a basic lexicon of several
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thousand words. From now on, what is learned is retained and increasingly dependant upon experiences and environment 一 on opportunities to use Ianguage and hear it used, for a wide range of purposes and audiences in a wide range of contexts. Humans mop up words like sponges.—Jean Aitchison, British linguist, The Language Web, 1997 Piaget
Sensori・motor Stage (0 — 2 years)Baby can differenciate from self and objectsParent: Where's the balPChild: *points to ball* BalliP: Yess! And now where's Tommy?C: *points to self*P: Yesss! Pre-operational Stage (2 ~ 7 years)Can classify objects as a single featureP: Tommy, can you make a pile of all the yellow bricks?C: Yes mummy look!P: Well done!
Still thinks egocentricallyCl: Dolly is sadC2: No! Dolly is happyiCl: No!C2: YesiCl: No!
Concrete operational Stage (7 一 11 years)Can think logically about objects and events and achieve conservation of numberC: Tomorrow I start ballet, and then I will go every weekTeacher: Oooh! Thats lovely! How old are youy now?C: 7!T: Now 一 please can you put these in order for me?C: Yep! *gets it right* Formal operational Stage (11 years +)Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problemsC: When I grow up I want to be a doctorP: And how will you achieve that?C: I'm going to work really, really hard at school and then get lots and lots of money and then get married, and have children, and
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live happily ever after!
时间：2021.02.05 欧阳科创编
2021.02.05
创作：欧阳科
2021.02.05
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