3. 在国际化基础上，产品分工是部分还是完全的成因。
Under constant opportunity cost conditions, specialization is complete. 机会成本不变的条件下，专业化是完整的。 A country can devote all of its resources to the production of a good without losing its comparative advantage. Under increasing cost conditions, specialization tends to be partial©.增加成本的条件下，化偏 As production costs rise with expanded production, the home country eventually loses its comparative advantage.
4. 相对需求理论的含义。它是如何解释国际贸易条件的。
The law of reciprocal demand suggests that if we know the domestic demands expressed by both trading partners for both products, the equilibrium terms of trade can be defined.
5. 为什么在成本递增条件下，不存在贸易时的生产点会影响相对成本，而成本不变的条件下则不存在这种影响。
Where a nation produces along its production possibilities curve in autarky affects the nation's comparative costs under increasing cost conditions. This is because the slope of a bowed-out production possibilities curve, which indicates the marginal rate of transformation,
varies at each point along the curve. Under conditions of constant costs, the production possibilities curve is a straight line. The marginal rate of transformation does not change in response to movements along the production possibilities curve. 成本不变的条件下，生产可能性曲线是一条直线。边际转换率不应在生产可能性曲线运动的变化。
6. 为什么李嘉图的贸易模型无法准确地决定收益。
The gains a country enjoys from free trade depend on the equilibrium terms of trade, which is determined by world supply and demand conditions. 一个国家的收益享有自由贸易依赖贸易的平衡，这是由世界的供给和需求条件确定。 By recognizing only the role of supply, Ricardo was unable to determine the equilibrium terms of trade.
7. 机会成本不变和机会成本递增的含义。在什么条件下一国的成本保持不变或递增。 Constant opportunity costs refer to a situation where the cost of each additional unit of one product in terms of another product remains the same. Constant costs occur when resources are completely adaptable to alternative uses. Under increasing cost conditions, a nation must sacrifice more and more of one product to produce each additional unit of another product. Increasing costs occur when resources are not completely adaptable to alternative uses. 固定的机会成本是指一种情况中，在另一个产品一个产品每增加单位成本保持不变。固定成本发生资源完全适用于其他用途。增加成本的条件下，一个国家必须牺牲更多的一个产品生产另一种产品的一个单位。成本增加时出现的资源并不完全适用于其他用途。
9. 比较成本和生产可能性曲线的关系。阐述对于不同的机会成本，生产可能性曲线形状有何不同。
The principle of comparative advantage can be explained in opportunity cost, which indicates the amount of one product that must be sacrificed in order to release enough resources to be able to produce one more unit of another product. The slope of the production possibilities curve (i.e., the marginal rate of transformation) indicates this rate of sacrifice. A nation facing a straight-line production possibilities curve produces under conditions of constant costs, while production under increasing costs refers to a bowed-out (i.e., concave) production possibilities curve. 比较优势原理可以解释机会成本，这表明一种产品要牺牲为了释放足够的资源能够生产更多的单位另一种产品的数量。的生产可能性曲线的斜率（即，边际转换率）表明该速率的牺牲。一个国家面临的一个直线生产可能性曲线生产成本不变的条件下，当生产成本增加是指一个退出（即，凹）生产可能性曲线。 第3章
3. 里昂惕夫之谜如何挑战要素禀赋模型的普遍适用性。
The Leontief paradox questioned the applicability of the
factor-endowment theory by concluding that the United States exported labor-intensive goods. This was the opposite conclusion that would be expected when applying the factor endowment theory to the United States. 里昂惕夫悖论质疑的要素禀赋理论的适用性的结论，美国出口劳动密集型产品。这是相反的结论，将运用要素禀赋理论去美国的时候。
5. 林德的理论：（1）对制成品（2）对初级农业产品。 Linder maintains that the factor-endowment theory is valid for trade in primary products, but that the theory of overlapping demands best applies to trade in manufactured goods. 林德认为要素禀赋理论在初级产品贸易是有效的，但最好的重叠需求理论应用于制造品贸易。
6. 国家干预总呢观测如何影响一个行业的国际竞争力。
Governmental regulations imposed on domestic producers lead to higher production costs and a decrease in competitiveness. Such regulation is a negative determinant on trade performance. Nations that impose more stringent and costly governmental regulations on their producers, relative to those abroad, tend to lessen their international competitiveness. 政府规定，对国内生产商征收导致较高的生产成本和降低竞争力。这样的规定是对贸易绩效负行列式。国家实施更严格的和昂贵的生产商的政府规定，相对于国外，倾向于减少其国际竞争力。
7. 要素禀赋理论证明了贸易如何影响贸易伙伴间的收入分配，解释。
The Heckscher-Ohlin theory reasons that exports of products embodying large amounts of relatively cheap, abundant factors makes those factors less abundant domestically. This leads to higher prices and thus an increased share of national income for these factors. 赫克歇尔俄林的理论原因，体现了大量相对便宜的出口产品，丰富的因素使得这些因素不太丰富的国内。这导致了这些因素更高的价格，从而增加国民收入的份额。
8. 产业政策的含义。政府如何创造新兴产业的比较优势。在制定产业政策时会遇到的问题。
Industrial policy refers to a governmental strategy intended to revitalize, improve, and/or develop an industry. Governmental policies intended to foster an industry's development include loan guarantees, research and development subsidies, low interest rate loans, trade protection, and the like. Creating comparative advantage requires the government to identify industries with the highest growth prospects. Problems of industrial policy include: (a) identifying growth oriented industries; (b) government policy makers may be unduly influenced by their voting constituents. 产业政策是指政府为了振兴战略，改善，和/或发展一个产业。政府的政策旨在促进行业的发展包括贷款担保，研发补贴，低利率贷款，贸易保护，等。创造比较优势的产业需要政府确定的最高增长前景。产业政策存在的问题包
括：（一）确定的增长型行业；（b）政府的政策制定者可以通过他们的投票选民的过度影响。
10. 区分产业贸易与产业间贸易。产业内贸易的主要决定因素是什么。 Interindustry trade refers to the exchange between nations of products of different industries. Intraindustry trade refers to two-way trade in a similar product. Among the determinants of intraindustry trade are: (a)overlapping demand segments in trading countries, (b) the extent to which domestic producers ignore \"minority\" consumer tastes, and (c) economies of scale associated with differentiated goods. 行业间贸易是指不同行业产品的国家之间的交流。产业内贸易是指在一个类似产品的双向贸易。产业内贸易的决定因素之间的是：（一）在交易的国家，重叠的需求部分，（b）在何种程度上忽视国内生产者的“少数民族”消费者的口味，和（c）与差异产品相关的规模经济。
11. 商品和要素投入的国际流动如何促使国家间要素价格均等化。
The factor endowment theory suggests that a capital-abundant nation enjoys relatively cheap capital. It thus specializes in and exports a capital-intensive good. This leads to increased demand for capital, which forces up the price of capital and thus the price of the capital-intensive good. The opposite occurs in the capital-scarce country. The basis for further specialization and trade ceases when the capital prices and
product prices in each nation equate. 要素禀赋理论认为，资本丰富的国家享有相对廉价的资本。因此，专业出口资本密集型商品。这导致资本需求的增加，迫使了资本的价格从而对资本密集型商品的价格。相反的情况发生在资本稀缺的国家。在此基础上进行进一步的专业化和贸易停止时，在每个国家的首都的价格和产品价格等同。
12. 大规模生产的经济效应如何影响国际贸易模式。 Adam Smith recognized that the division of labor is limited by the size of the market; world trade can permit longer production runs for domestic manufacturers, which leads to increasing efficiency and increasing competitiveness. 亚当史密斯认为劳动分工是市场规模的限制；世界贸易可以允许较长的生产运行的国内厂商，这导致提高效率和增加竞争力。
13. 运输成本对国际贸易模式的影响。
Transportation costs affect the location of industry since firms recognize that transportation costs in addition to production costs affect profitability. A firm achieves its best location when it can minimize its total operating costs, including production and transportation costs. When adding transportation costs to the prices of traded goods, a nation's volume of trade decreases. 运输成本影响产业的位置，因为公司认识到，除了生产成本影响盈利能力的运输成本。一个公司达到其最佳的位置时，它可以最小化总经营成本，包括生产和运输成本。对贸易商品的价格加上运输成
本时，一个国家的贸易额下降。 第4章
2. 欠发达国家认为，工业国的关税结构不利于欠发达国家发展本国工业，请解释。
Developing countries have argued that industrial countries allow raw materials to be imported at low nominal tariff rates while maintaining high nominal tariff rates on finished products. 发展中国家认为，工业国家允许进口原材料在较低的名义关税税率的同时保持较高的名义关税率对成品。
4. 描述从量关税、从价关税和混合关税的概念，并区分其优缺点。
A specific tariff is expressed as a fixed amount of money per unit of the imported product. An ad valorem tariff is a fixed percentage of the value of the imported product as it enters the country. A compound tariff combines a specific tariff and an ad valorem tariff. 一个特定的关税是对一定数量的进口商品的每单位的钱。从价关税是固定比例的进口产品的价值作为进入中国。复合关税将特定的关税和关税。
5. 在什么情况下，对进口商品征收的名义关税高估或低估了实际关税或名义关税的有效保护性。 When material inputs or intermediate products enter a country at a low duty while the final imported product is protected by a high duty, the nominal tariff rate on the final product overstates the effective rate of protection. The opposite also applies. 当材料的投入或中间产品进入一个国家在一个较低的关税而最终的进口产品的高关税保护，对最终产品的名义税率夸大的有效保护率。相反的也适用。
8. 保税仓库和对外贸易区的含义。为什么它们能够帮助进口商减轻国内进口关税的影响。
A bonded warehouse is a storage facility for imported goods; it allows imported goods to be put into storage without the payment of duties. Goods may be later sold overseas duty free or withdrawn for domestic sale upon payment of import duties. A foreign trade zone is a site where foreign merchandise can be imported with no import duty; merchandise in the zone can be stored or used in the manufacturing of final products. 保税仓库是一个进口货物的仓储设施；它允许进口入库货物未支付的义务。货物可以免税或撤回后在海外销售的内销的进口关税支付。对外贸易区是一个网站，外国商品可以没有进口税进口；在区商品可以存储或用于最终产品的制造。
13. 有关关税的讨论，你认为哪一种与当今的世界最相关。
Economists generally contend that most arguments for trade restrictions cannot withstand searching analysis. The infant industry and national security arguments may have some validity, but they must be highly qualified. 经济学家普遍认为，大多数参数的贸易限制，不能承受搜索分析。幼
稚产业和国家安全的争论可能会有一定的道理，但他们必须是合格的。
15. 征收关税对一个国家的贸易条件和贸易量产生的影响。
Terms of trade improve, while trade volume declines. 贸易条件的改善，而贸易量下降。 第5章
3. 进口配额可能带来的收益和成本。 The import quota tends to permit domestic firms and workers to enjoy higher sales, profits, and employment levels. Consumers tend to face higher prices and expenditure levels. The economy as a whole faces deadweight losses in production and consumption. 进口配额会使国内企业和工人享受更高的销售额，利润，和就业水平。消费者往往面临更高的价格和支出水平。整个经济面临的无谓损失的生产和消费。
5. 哪种趋势会造成家庭经济更大的福利损失：（1）由本国政府实行进口配额（2）由外国政府自愿实行出口配额。 Under an import quota, the distribution of the revenue effect is indeterminate, depending on the relative bargaining power of foreign producers and domestic buyers. Because voluntary export quotas are typically administered from the supply side of the market, the largest share of the revenue effect tends to be captured by foreign exporters. 进口配额的影响下，收入分配是不确定的，根据相对议价能力的外国生产商和国内买家。由于自愿出口配额通常是从供应方的市场管理，对收入影响最大的份额往往受到外国出口商捕获。
6. 日本对出口到美国的汽车数量进行限制，给美国带来的影响。 Same general answer as Question 5. The distribution of the revenue effect tends to accrue to foreign auto-makers. 同一般回答问题5。的收入效应的分布趋于增加外国汽车制造商。
7. 针对在美倾销的外国钢材实施配额时，为什么美国刚才消费企业会向政府游说。
By contributing to a scarcity of steel in the domestic market, quotas lead to higher steel prices and production costs for domestic steel-using firms. Such cost increases detract from their international competitiveness. 通过有助于在国内市场上稀缺的钢，配额导致更高的钢铁价格和生产成本为国内用钢公司。这样的成本增加影响其国际竞争力。
8. 考虑国际倾销，区别以价格为基础和以成本为基础确定的国际市场价值。 According to the priced-based definition, dumping occurs whenever a foreign firm sells a product in the importing country’s market at a price below that for which the product is sold in the firm's home market.
According to the cost-based definition, dumping occurs when foreign merchandise is sold in the domestic market at \"less than fair value\" (i.e., price is less than average total cost). 根据价格基础的定义，倾销发生在一个外国公司销售的产品在进口国的市场价格低于，该产品是在该公司的国内销售。根据定义的成本，当反倾销的外国商品在国内市场销售的“低于公平价值”（即，价格小于平均总成本）。
10. 主要的非关税壁垒有:
Nontariff trade barriers include import quotas, voluntary export agreements, subsidies, buy-national policies, product and safety standards, and content requirements. 非关税壁垒包括进口配额，自愿出口协议，补贴，购买的国家政策，产品安全标准，内容要求
12. 政府给予国内生产者的补贴方式主要有哪些？
Subsidies include domestic subsidies and export subsidies. Methods used to subsidize producers include tax concessions, low interest rate loans, and loan guarantees. 补贴包括生活补贴和出口补贴。方法用于补贴生产者包括税收优惠，低利率的贷款，贷款担保。
13. 自动出口限制的含义。它和其他的贸易保护壁垒有何不同。
Voluntary export restraints are market-sharing agreements negotiated by producing and consuming countries. Because voluntary export
quotas are typically administered from the supply side of the market, the foreign exporter tends to capture the largest share of the quota revenue. 自愿出口限制的市场共享协议的生产和消费国的谈判。由于自愿出口配额通常是从供应方的市场管理，外国出口商倾向于捕捉到的配额收入的最大份额。
16. 偶发性、持续性、掠夺性倾销之间的区别。 Sporadic dumping--firms with temporary inventories sell their products overseas at lower prices than at home. Predatory dumping--firms cut prices overseas to eliminate competitors. Persistent dumping--in an effort to maximize profits, firms continuously sell abroad at lower prices than at home. 偶发性倾销——临时库存公司海外销售产品以较低的价格比在家里。掠夺性倾销——公司削减价格海外排挤竞争对手。持续性倾销——为了利润最大化，企业不断向国外以更低的价格比在家里。 第6章
2. 战略性贸易政策的目的。
Strategic trade policy refers to governmental assistance provided to support key industries that are considered important to future domestic economic growth and provide widespread benefits to society. 战略性贸易政策是指提供支持，被认为是未来国内经济增长的重要和向社会提供广泛的效益的关键产业的政府援助。
3. 经济制裁的目的。
Economic sanctions refer to trade and financial restrictions levied against a foreign country. Such restrictions are designed to impose economic hardship on the people of the foreign nation which will lead to their pressuring the government to modify its political behavior. A country facing economic sanctions may initiate offsetting sanctions such as stockpiling crucial imports or purchasing goods from countries that do not participate in the sanctions. 经济制裁是指贸易和金融限制向国外。这种限制是为了对外国的国家，会导致其政府施压以改变其政治行为人实施经济困难。一个国家面临的经济制裁可能会引发抵消制裁如储存关键进口或购买商品，不参与制裁的国家。
5. 叙述美国政府实行的产业政策，这些政策和日本的政策有何不同。 Industrial policies of the United States have been less formal than those of Europe and Japan. The U.S. government encourages exports via its Export-Import Bank and Commodity Credit Corporation. Firms are also allowed to form export trading companies and export trade associations. 美国的工业政策已经比欧洲和日本不太正式的。美国政府鼓励出口通过其进出口银行和产品信贷公司。公司也允许出口贸易公司和出口贸易协会。
9. 什么是贸易补救法案？面对不公平（公平）的商品贸易，它们如何保护美国企业。 These laws attempt to redress hardships for U.S. producers resulting from policies of foreign firms and governments, thus resulting in a fair trading environment. They consist of the escape clause, countervailing duties, antidumping duties, and Section 301 of the 1974 Trade Act that deals with unfair trading practices by foreign nations. 这些法律试图纠正美国生产商从外国公司和政府的政策造成困难，从而导致在一个公平的贸易环境。他们组成的例外条款，反补贴税，反倾销税，而301款的1974的贸易行为，由外国不公平贸易行为的研究。
13. 在美国贸易历史上，贸易保护主义在什么时期达到最高峰。
Protectionism in the United States culminated with the passage of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930.
在美国是1930的斯穆特-霍利关税法案通过保护主义。 第7章
5. 为什么发展中国家担忧商品价格稳定。 Many developing countries find that their economies are greatly tied to the export of one commodity, such as tin. Since the price elasticities of supply and demand of most commodities are low, modest changes in supply or demand can exert large swings in commodity prices and export earnings. 许多发展中国家发现他们的经济大大依赖于一种商品的出口，如锡。由于供应和大多数大宗商品需求的价格弹性低，供给或需求的变化可以产生适度的大宗商品价格大幅波动和出口收入。
6. 进口替代和出口导向型政策如何帮助发展中国家实现工业化。 Developing countries use import substitution policies to restrict the import of manufacturers so that domestic producers can take over established markets. Export promotion policies attempt to replace commodity exports with exports of processed primary products, semi-manufacturers, and manufacturers. 发展中国家使用进口替代政策限制制造商的进口，国内生产商可以在既定的市场。促进出口的政策，试图与加工的初级产品，出口替代商品出口半制造商，制造商。
7. 国际商品协定的例子。为什么许多这样的协定经过一定时期后会解散。 International commodity agreements have been applied to commodities such as tin, cocoa, coffee, sugar, and wheat. Deciding on acceptable ranges for price and output fluctuations has been difficult. Convincing countries to accept production and export quotas has also been difficult, especially during periods of falling market demand. 国际商品协定已应用于商品如锡，可可，咖啡，糖，小麦。决定对价格和产出波动范围已经很难接受。令人信服的国家接受生产和出口配额也非常困难，尤其是在市场需求下降的时期。
8. 20世纪70-90年代，东亚实现经济增长所采取的战略政策。东亚奇迹在新千年能否实现。
East Asia’s growth strategy has emphasized high rates of investment combined with high and increasing endowments of human capital due to universal primary and secondary education. East Asia’s economies have followed a flying geese pattern of growth in which countries gradually move up in technological development by following in the pattern of countries ahead of them in the development process. Moreover, industrial policies have attempted to support selected sectors of East Asia’s economies. Economic growth for East Asia has been export oriented. 东亚的发展战略，强调高投资率结合高和增加人力资本的禀赋由于普及初级教育和中等教育。东亚的经济体都跟着雁行模式的增长，国家逐渐走高技术发展的国家的模式在发展过程中，在他们前面。此外，工业政策试图支持东亚经济体的经济选择的行业。东亚经济的增长一直以出口为导向的。
10. 普遍优惠制度的目的在于帮助发展中国家进入国际市场，对此进行解释。 Under the GSP program, industrial countries reduce tariffs on imports from developing countries below the levels applied to imports from other industrial countries. 普惠制方案下，工业化国家减少对发展中国家的水平以下，适用于其他工业国家的进口关税。 第8章
1. 贸易创造和贸易转移的静态福利效应如何影响一国建立关税同盟的决策，动态福利效应对这一决策有何重要意义。
The formation of a customs union results in static, or once-and-for-all, welfare effects. Included are a welfare-increasing trade creation effect and a welfare-reducing trade diversion effect. A country's decision to participate in the customs union depends on which of these effects is the most significant. Over the long run, the formation of a customs union affects national welfare via economies of scale, investment incentives, and the level of competition. 关税同盟的结果在静态的形成，或一劳永逸，福利效应。包括福利增加的贸易创造效应和贸易转移效应的福利减少。一个国家的决定参加关税同盟，取决于这些影响是最重要的。长期以来，形成关税同盟的国家福利的影响通过规模经济，鼓励投资，和竞争水平。
3. 经济一体化的含义。包括哪些阶段。 Economic integration refers to the process of eliminating restrictions on international trade, payments, and factor mobility. The stages of economic integration include free trade area, customs union, common market, economic union, and monetary union. 经济一体化是指消除国际贸易的支付流程，限制，和要素流动。经济一体化的阶段包括自由贸易区，关税同盟，共同市场，经济联盟，货币联盟。
5. 贸易自由化如何在非歧视和歧视的环境下存在，分别有哪些例子。 The General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade represent trade liberalization on a nondiscriminatory basis. Participating nations acknowledge that tariff reductions agreed to by any two nations will be extended to all other members. Trade liberalization on a discriminatory basis occurs when nations form preferential trading arrangements in which tariff reductions are limited to member nations. 关税及贸易总协议代表了贸易自由化在非歧视的基础上。参与联合国的承认，削减关税，同意在任何两个国家将扩展到所有其他成员。贸易自由化在歧视的基础上发生时，国家形式的优惠贸易安排，降低关税限制成员国。 第9章
3. 企业对外直接投资最重要的动机。
Demand and cost factors tend to underlie a firm's decision to undergo direct foreign investment. 需求和成本因素往往是一个公司的决定进行对外直接投资。
4. 为什么在美国，关于工业园区的生产分工概念存在争议，墨西哥呢？ The decision to undergo direct foreign investment or licensing is based on several criteria: (1) import tariff structures; (2) the size of the foreign market in relation to the firm's most efficient plant size; (3) comparative
labor productivities and wage levels; and (4) the amount of capital used in the production process. 决定接受外国直接投资或许可证是基于以下几个标准：（1）进口关税结构；（2）在关系到公司的最高效的工厂规模的外国市场的规模；（3）比较劳动生产率和工资水平；及（4）在生产过程中使用的资本量。
9. 跨国企业可以在东道国和母国进行纵向、横向以及混合的多元化经营，区别这些多元化经营方法。
Vertical integration generally results in the establishment of foreign subsidiaries that supply inputs going into the finished good. Horizontal integration occurs when the parent firm sets up a subsidiary to produce an identical product overseas. Conglomerate integration results in a firm's diversification into nonrelated markets. 垂直整合的一般结果在国外设立子公司，供应的投入去完成好。横向整合发生在母公司设立子公司生产相同产品的海外。在一个公司的多样化的非相关市场集团整合的结果。
PS. 加了曲下划线的题是涂远芬老师划了而杨丽琳老师没划的，双下划线的题是两人都划了的，还有第五章第一个题我不清楚老师说没说，就用了斜体。题目翻译是找了中文版对照的，应该没有什么问题。那么，复习加油咯~ 打印的话记得先删掉这一页呀！
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